A transaction cost approach to the choice of oversight governance structures at the United Nations: The case of the inquiry committee into the oil-for-food programme scandal

A scandal of fraud and corruption in the management of the Oil-for-Food Programme for Iraq unfolded in early 2004 at the United Nations. The Secretary-General Annan, terminated the ongoing investigation of the scandal by the extant Office of Internal Oversight empowered by the General Assembly, and, with the endorsement of the Security Council, contracted out an Inquiry Committee to investigate the administration and management of the Programme. The lack of reasonable number of studies about internal audit in its natural settings (Lee, 2004), aggravated by the gaps found in the literature about the impact of pathological behavior in international organizations (Barnett and Finnemore, 1999), stress the research opportunity. A longitudinal historical narrative analytical case based research applying first time Williamson’s (1999) Transaction Cost Economics theory to explore “probity” and “independence” transactions’ attributes enhanced with the “virtues ethics” McCloskey’s (2006) framework, is developed to respond to the questions i) Has the inquiry worked? ii) Has Transaction Cost Economics’ discriminating alignment hypothesis been verified in the case of the Oil-for-Food scandal inquiry? The inquiry, which contains “sovereign” as well as “quasi-judiciary” transactions elements, and though lack the “authority of the sovereign” and the “independence” of the judiciary attributes, did not work. Transaction Cost Economics alignment hypothesis did not verify and “probity” hazards – “ethics” – cannot be relieved by governance structures, i.e., incentives. I argue that Transaction Cost Economics should be modified to include McCloskey’s “virtues ethics” behavioral dimension as a transaction costs’ reduction device and an explanatory framework for bureaucratic ethical failures.Um escândalo de fraude e corrupção na gestão do Oil-for-Food Programme para o Iraque eclodiu em 2004 nas Nações Unidas. O Secretário-Geral Annan terminou a investigação em curso dos Serviços de Supervisão e Inspeção Interna que atua com poderes delegados pela Assembleia Geral e, com o aval do Conselho de Segurança, contratou uma comissão de inquérito independente para investigar. Insuficiência de estudos sobre os contextos em que a auditoria interna funciona (Lee, 2004), agravada pelas lacunas encontradas na literatura sobre o impacto de comportamentos patológicos em organizações internacionais (Barnett e Finnemore, 1999) justificam a pesquisa. Um método investigação de estudo de caso longitudinal suportado por uma análise de narrativa histórica, aplicando pela primeira vez a teoria Económica do Custo de Transação de Williamson (1999) para explorar os atributos da “probidade” e da “independência” das transações, é desenvolvido para responder às perguntas: O inquérito resultou? Verificou-se a hipótese de alinhamento discriminante da teoria Económica do Custo de Transação no caso da contratação do inquérito externo? A investigação, com elementos das transações de auditoria e das judiciais, faltando-lhe, todavia, a autoridade soberana e a independência dos atributos judiciários, não resultou nem a hipótese de alinhamento da teoria Económica do Custo de Transação se verificou porque os riscos de probidade – ética – não podem ser mitigados através de incentivos de estruturas de governação. Defendo que a Economia dos Custos de Transação deve ser modificada para incluir a dimensão comportamental da ética das virtudes de McCloskey como um instrumento de redução de custos de transação e um quadro referencial explicativo para falhas de ética em organizações burocráticas

Eco-efficiency of plasters for rehabilitation and new buildings

A review of the current state of art for air-lime, gypsum and earth based plasters for rehabilitation and new buildings, in terms of eco-efficiency, is presented. These mortars belong to Portuguese traditional architecture, responding to compatibility criteria most of the time. This factor, combined with a possible positive response to eco-efficiency evaluation, would bring interest for their application in rehabilitation as well as in new construction. To assess eco-efficiency of plasters, the considered factors are linked to the environmental impact of these products and to their contribution for occupants well-being. Some qualitative results concerning embodied energy for these mortars in a “cradle to gate” approach analysis are shown. The lack of a common, standardized and shared procedure for this evaluation seems an evidence, above all when the attempt of comparing results from different studies is made. Furthermore, common and specific characteristics mostly related to contribution for indoor comfort conditions are presented, as indicators of technical efficiency of those plasters. The potential for behaving as moisture regulators and passive removal materials not only affect users, but can also have an important role in energy savings. Lastly, durability is considered a key factor of eco-efficiency mainly to meet the purpose of minimising exploitation of raw materials. For this reason it is important to consider protective treatments or finishing system, for improving durability, always keeping in mind all the elements of the equation.publishersversionpublishe

Comparison of an earth mortar and common binder mortars for indoor plastering

Plasters can be formulated with different binders, presenting different characteristics. Their main function is the protection of the substrate but, as indoor coatings, their influence on aesthetic performance and indoor air quality and comfort is also important. A plaster formulated with a clayish earth is compared to plasters formulated with common binders, namely hemihydrate gypsum, air lime and natural hydraulic lime. All the plasters have the same volumetric proportion binder:sand and were produced with the same siliceous washed sand. Results show that: the linear shrinkage of the earth mortar was the highest while the gypsum mortar presented no shrinkage; the bulk density of all the mortars were similar but there were differences on thermal conductivity, with advantages for the lime mortars, although this property is not significant for plasters application thicknesses; the gypsum mortar presented the highest mechanical properties while the lime mortars presented the lowest, even lower in comparison to the earth mortar; however, the resistance to dry abrasion was lower for the earth plaster; the earth plaster registers a very high hygroscopicity in comparison to all the other plasters, being an important contribution to indoor comfort, occupants health and energy consumption reduction.publishersversionpublishe

Development of an Integrated Durability Assessment Methodology of Thermal Mortars Applied in Multi-layer Systems

A gap in the durability assessment of thermal mortars applied in multi-layer systems was observed. The existing standardisation for the durability assessment of hardened mortars does not include a consistent evaluation of thermal coatings applied in multilayer systems, which motivated the development of a new durability assessment methodology. The determination of the physical, hygrothermal and mechanical properties allowed deepening the knowledge of thermal mortars, contributing to develop more reliable simulations. The existing durability methodologies applicable to one-coat mortars and those applicable to thermal multilayer systems (such as ETICS - External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems) are suitable to be adapted to thermal rendering and plastering systems since they present some similar characteristics. The methodology takes into account the material characteristics and specific requirements, such as the application and climatic conditions. The knowledge of these parameters allows the definition of representative accelerated ageing cycles of the relevant degradation mechanisms. The combination of existing procedures with hygrothermal simulation allowed the development of accelerated ageing cycles, taking into account the European climatic context. The existing procedures allowed analysing several degradation mechanisms, but the fixed parameters are not transversal to different climates. The developed methodology allows a realistic durability evaluation since the ageing cycles are adapted to thermal mortars and real climate conditions, contrary to the existing standardised procedure

the case of the internal oversight at the United Nations through the lens of public and private bureaucracies transaction cost economics

Funding text: The second author of the paper acknowledges that this work was funded by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (UID/ECO/00124/2013 and Social Sciences Data Lab, Project 22209) by POR Lisboa (Lisboa-01-0145-FEDER-007722 and Social Sciences Data Lab, Project 22209) and POR Norte (Social Sciences Data Lab, Project 22209).Purpose: Through a case study on the governance structures of the UN, the purpose of this paper is to develop a critique of Public and Private Bureaucracies Transaction Cost Economics (PPBTCE) (Williamson, 1999) as a theoretical lens to analyze internal oversight structures. Design/methodology/approach: The authors explore “probity” and “independence” transactions’ attributes through historical narrative case-based research to answer the question – Why did numerous attempts to strengthen the governance of UN internal oversight structures not relieve “probity” hazards? Findings: The analysis shows that at the UN increasing and strengthening the governance of oversight structures, i.e., incentives, did not relieve probity/ethics hazards as predicted in PPBTCE. Secretaries-General and UN General Assembly, entities charged with oversight powers, systematically trumpeted the UN Charter, breaching probity/ethics and disregarding the supervisory independence prerogative of internal oversight structures, hence failing to contribute to the “common good” and to protect the UN mission. Originality/value: This paper is the first application of PPBTCE to internal oversight transactions within an International organization context testing probity and independence attributes. The authors find that “independence” outweighs the “asset specificity” attribute whenever decisions on the governance of internal oversight arise. As far as sourcing decisions are concerned, the authority of the sovereign and the independence of the judiciary as well as quasi-judiciary transactions are not transferable attributes and, thus, cannot be contracted along with the actors’ ethics. PPBTCE should be modified to include, e.g. “virtues ethics” behavioral assumption as a transaction costs’ reduction device and explanatory framework for “probity” hazards, abandoning the opportunism behavioral assumption.publishersversionpublishe

Traditional and modern plasters for built heritage: Suitability and contribution for passive relative humidity regulation

Plasters have covered wide surface areas of buildings since antiquity, with a main purpose of indoor protection of the substrate on which they are applied. When no longer functional, they might require substitution with solutions that can combine compatibility with the substrate with the current need to mitigate building emissions. Indeed, plasters can contribute to lowering buildings’ energy demands while improving indoor air quality and the comfort of buildings’ users, as plasters can be used as passive regulators of relative humidity (RH). Hence, this study presents the relative-humidity-dependent properties of different plastering mortars based on clay, air lime, and natural hydraulic lime, and plastering finishing pastes based on gypsum and gypsum–air lime, in all cases tested using small size specimens. A cement-based plaster is also analysed for comparison. The clay-based plaster was the most promising material for RH passive regulation, and could be applied to repair and replace plasters in different types of buildings. Pastes based on air lime–gypsum could be applied as finishing layers, specifically on traditional porous walls. The sorption behaviour of cement plaster appeared interesting; however, its water vapour permeability was as expected, found to be the lowest, discouraging its application on historic walls.publishersversionpublishe

Historical Heritage: A Study to Conservation

Considering ancient monuments and historical buildings, it seems that these mortars have proved to be durable and reliable materials. The restoration and maintenance of old renders is one of the key aspects of correct rehabilitation practice. The ideal course of action is to replace the damaged material by a material with compatible characteristics.The study in development presents the chemical, physical and morphologic analysis performed for ancient air lime mortars belonging to historical monuments: Santa Marta Fortress in the coast line Lisbon-Cascais dated from XVII century and Defense Wall of Lisbon dated from XI century, which layout could be associated to roman period. It is important to underline that the studied samples of ancient portuguese air lime mortars, have been submitted during centuries to very severe maritime environment that includes daily cycles of wet/dry, wind, friction and the constant presence of salts, generally aggressive. However, they show very good performance and conservation state, unlike most of the new air lime mortars, which are generally considered weak, not very durable, materials. This work is included in a study intending to determine key factors to the durability of these ancient materials in presence of water. Visible reaction rims around some aggregates suggests the occurrence of pozzolanic reactions between aggregates and the lime binder that creates neoformation products, such as calcium-silico-aluminates, which seems be, besides the pores filling, the responsible for the resistance and cohesion of these ancient mortars submitted to aggressive humid environments

Decorative renders simulating stone of middle 20th century in the region of Lisbon

Housing and public urban buildings of the middle 20th century period, in Portugal, are characterized by a sober, rather severe, architectural and constructive design, known as “Estado Novo” period. In the region of Lisbon, the façades of many of those buildings are covered with a very durable unpainted decorative type of render, called “marmorite”. Considering that cementitious binders were already often used in that period, both in structural elements and in coatings, and due to the darkening effect of fungus, soiling and pollution, there was a generalized belief that marmorite renders were cement-based mortars. As a consequence, repair interventions used materials and techniques chosen for cementitious renders. However, the characterization of the marmorite render of the National Laboratory for Civil Engineering main building, in Lisbon, revealed that the render was composed by air lime, limestone and marble. Later, an experimental characterization campaign of samples of marmorite renders of 20 other buildings in the region of Lisbon revealed that they were generally composed by air lime, sometimes coloured with an inorganic pigment, and mainly limestone and marble aggregates of different colours selected to obtain an aesthetic effect.authorsversionpublishe

A study on hygrothermal conditions in intermittently heated or unheated bedrooms in southern Europe

PD/BD/150399/2019 PD/BD/135192/2017 UIDB/04378/2020Indoor hygrothermal parameters have an important role in the assessment of indoor air quality (IAQ) and comfort. In fact, the perception of air quality is strongly influenced by temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH). In Northern Europe, due to the severe climate conditions during winter, it is common to adopt continuous heating to guarantee sufficient thermal comfort in residential buildings. On the contrary, in Southern European countries, due to the specific climate, economy and culture, a permanent heating practice in winter is generally not adopted. Consequently, the indoor climate in Northern and Southern Europe is expected to be quite different, and this discrepancy should be taken into account when designing retrofit interventions aimed at improving indoor comfort and lowering energy demands. In particular, when studying the properties of interior coating materials, T is commonly set between 20-25 °C and RH in the range 33-75%. These are considered acceptable and common indoor conditions for continuously heated buildings, but they might be not representative of Southern European reality. For the present study, four residential buildings were chosen in the city of Lisbon. The indoor air T and RH were continuously recorded for one bedroom in each building during wintertime. The bedrooms are characterized by a floor surface of 7.5-10 m2, the occupancy of one person during an average of eight hours, natural ventilation and the presence of one window North/Northwest oriented and with manually-regulated shading. All rooms were monitored under operational conditions, with users adopting intermittent heating (room heaters) or no heating at all. The main differences between the case studies concern the floor where the apartments are located and the constructive characteristics of the buildings. The indoor hygrothermal conditions obtained in the monitoring campaign are discussed in this paper and indoor thermal comfort is evaluated. Finally, despite the differences between the case studies, an approximation of the overall indoor T and RH fluctuations is provided.publishersversionpublishe

Characterisation of old azulejos setting mortars: a contribution to the conservation of this type of coatings

All the experimental work was carried at the National Laboratory for Civil Engineering (LNEC), Buildings Department and Materials Department for physico-mechanical and chemical-mineralogical characterisations, respectively. The authors wish to thank to Museu Nacional do Azulejo for providing all the old azulejos’ setting mortars used in this study and also to Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) for the financial contribution within research project PTDC/EPH-PAT/4684/2014: DB-HERITAGE (Database of building materials with historical and heritage interest).One of the most typical Portuguese facades’ coatings is the glazed tile (azulejo) wall coating. Azulejos are in Portuguese history for six centuries, being considered a historical heritage and a mark of Portuguese culture. The setting mortar used in the azulejos application plays an important role for the correct functioning of the entire coating system. Therefore, for correct conservation its study and well detailed characterisation are fundamental. Within the scope of DB-HERITAGE project (Database of building materials with historical and heritage interest), a deep gathering of data from literature, concerning the characteristics of azulejos’ setting mortars, from the 16th to the 20th centuries, was made. Adding to the existing data, a physical, mechanical, chemical and mineralogical characterisation of a set of azulejos´ setting mortars, from the 16th to the 19th century, from Lisbon and Coimbra cities, was carried out. The results obtained in the experimental study were analysed and compared with the ones gathered from literature leading to establish useful conclusions for the prescription of future conservation interventions for this type of coating.authorsversionpublishe